Funaria is a common moss that belongs to the group Bryophyta. It is a genus of approximately 210 species of moss. Funaria hygrometrica is the most common species of the Funaria genus.
These are primitive multicellular, autotrophic, shade-loving, amphibious plants. They reproduce by spore formation. They don’t have a vascular system for transportation.
Common names
- Rope moss
- Cord moss
- Green moss
- Little goldilocks
- Golden maidenhair
Funaria hygrometrica is called “cord moss” because of the presence of the twisted seta which is very hygroscopic (having water-holding capacity) and untwists when moist. The name is derived from the Latin word “funis”, meaning “a rope“.
Classification
| Domain | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom | Plantae |
| Infrakingdom | Streptophyta – land plants |
| Division/Phylum | Bryophyta |
| Superdivision | Embryophyta |
| Class | Bryopsida |
| Subclass | Funariidae |
| Order | Funariales |
| Family | Funariaceae |
| Genus | Funaria |
Habitat
It is generally found growing in patches in moist and shady places. A moss plant is small and is about 3–5 cm in height.
It consists of a short axis with minute, green, and spirally arranged leaves. There are no vascular bundles so the absorption takes place through the leaf.
The water-rich environment is necessary for their survival and exitance as the biflagellate sperms can swim through the water only. It also grows in moist, shady, cool, and damp places during the rainy season.
Morphology
The main plant body of bryophyte is haploid (n) and gametophytic which is represented by a juvenile and an adult stage.
The adult plant body is foliose (leaflike shape) gametophyte which is leafy and branched and is differentiated into axis or stem, leaves, and rhizoids.
Stem are small, erect, upright, slender, monopodially branched and photosynthetic.
Leaves are spirally arranged around the axis. It is flat, and green with a well-defined mid-rib. Lower leaves are smaller and scattered and upper leaves are large and crowded.
Rhizoids are basal, colorless, branched, multicellular, and obliquely septated mainly for absorption of minerals and anchorage to the substratum.
Sporophyte
A mature sporophyte has three parts:
Foot
It forms the basal portion of the sporophyte.
Seta
It is along the slender structure which elevates the capsule.
Capsule
It is an asymmetrical, grooved capsule that has a complex structure. The loose cap of the capsule is known as Calyptra. The capsule can further be subdivided into –
- Apophysis: It is the basal green solid and the enlarged portion concerned with photosynthesis.
- Theca: The fertile region above the apophysis.
- Operculum or lid: It is the sterile terminal part of the capsule. The outermost layer the epidermis is thick-walled while the inner layers are thin-walled and parenchymatous. The lid is separated from the theca by a narrow circular constriction. Just above the constriction is a ring of 5-6 thin-walled cells called the annulus (ring). Below the wall of the lid is a two-ringed structure of peristome teeth. The outer ring of the peristome is the exostome and the inner ring is known as the endostome which takes part in the dehiscence of the capsule.
Spores are produced in this part. They are enclosed in the spore’s sacs. Air spaces traversed with trabaculae are present in theca.
The solid central column containing water and food is known as the columella. Just above the theca is the operculum or lid which is 4 – 5 layers in thickness.
It has a double row of peristome teeth which are 16 in number in each ring. There are some stomata present on the outermost layers called the epidermis.
When the spores ripen, the capsule starts to dry up. The hygroscopic peristome teeth start bending inward when there is high humidity.
They pick up some spores and straighten in low humidity and get dispersed. This is in the sporophyte where the meiosis division takes place which results in the production of haploid (n) spores that germinate to form gametophyte.
Each diploid (2n) spore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploid spores.
Life cycle
They show an alternation of generation i.e. the gametophytic stage alternates with the sporophytic stage. The moss passes through two independent phases that are, the gametophyte or sexual phase and the Sporophyte or Asexual phase.
Reproduction also takes place through vegetative propagation. Small fragments of any part of the plant can grow into a full plant body.
Small multicellular green ends called Gammae may arise along the axis and when detached may grow into a dew plant.
Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction in Funaria takes place through 5 means, apospory, bulbils, gammae, primary protonema, and secondary protonema.
Apospory
Apospory is the development of 2n gametophytes, without meiosis and spore formation, from vegetative, or non-reproductive cells of the sporophyte.
It is the development of haploid (n) sporophytes without gametes and syngamy from vegetative cells of the gametophyte.
Vegetative cells of the sporophyte give rise to green protonemal fragments which later become a gametophyte. The gametophyte produced from apospory is diploid which gives rise to tetraploid and sterile sporophytes.
Bulbils
A small bulblike structure or small resting buds, in particular one in the axil of a leaf, which may fall to form a new plant. It arises from the rhizoids and starts dividing under favorable conditions and produces filamentous protonema that can grow into leafy gametophytes.
Gemmae
A gemma (plural gemmae) is a single cell, a mass of cells, or a modified bud of tissue. Under unfavorable conditions, the terminal cells of the protonema divide transversely and longitudinally to give rise to 10-30 celled green bodies that detach from the parent body and develop into a new individual. These structures start to divide and form new plants in favorable conditions.
Primary Protonema
Protonema is basically defined as the creeping, green, branched, and often filamentous stage of the process of growth. Protonema is a haploid, autonomous, and gametophytic stage of the life cycle of mosses.
The spores germinate to produce branched, filamentous and multicellular structures that are called primary protonema. These cells break into fragments to produce new protonemal cells which develop into a leafy gametophore (prominent structures in seedless plants on which the reproductive organs are borne).
Secondary Protonema
Secondary protonema is similar morphologically to primary protonema and also gives rise to gametophore initials. It is formed from broken or injured rhizoids, stems, or leaves.
Under favorable conditions, the secondary protonemata are formed from any detached or injured portion of the gametophore from the stem, leaves, antheridium, paraphyses, and archegonium. It can give rise to a whole new gametophore.
Primary Protonema v/s Secondary Protonema
- Protonema developed from spores is called primary protonema and the protonema development from parts other than spores is known as secondary protonema.
- Secondary protonema develops from any of the parts of the adult plant body the parts may include stems, leaves, and rhizoids.
Sexual reproduction
Funaria is monoecious that’s why male and female reproductive organs develop on the same plant but on different branches. Highly specialized male organs are known as antheridia and female sex organs are known as archegonia. These sex organs are born in clusters.
Difference between Antheridum and Archegonium
| S.No. | Antheridium | Archegonium |
| 1. | The male reproductive organs called antheridia are present on the main branch. | The female reproductive organs called archegonia are present on the lateral branch. |
| 2. | In the male heads, the paraphyses terminate in a large global cell. | In the female heads, the paraphyses terminate in the pointed ends. |
| 3. | An antheridium is a club-shaped structure that is borne on a short, multicellular stalk. | Each archegonium is a flask-shaped structure that is raised on a short stalk. |
| 4. | The antheridium produces a large number of sperms. | The archegonium has a single egg cell. |
| 5. | The sperms have two flagella and are motile. | The egg possesses no flagella and is not motile. |
| 6. | The antheridium does not produce a surgery solution. | The archegonium produces a surgery solution to attract sperm. |
| 7. | The fusion of gametes does not take place inside the antheridium. | The fusion of gametes takes place inside the archegonium. |
| 8. | After fertilization, the male branch withers off. | After fertilization, the female branch continues to grow. |
Fertilization
The antheridium is a multicellular club-shaped with a small stalk and encloses numerous cells called antherozoid mother cells.
Each short of antheridium has a jacket of cells. The antheridium bursts at the apex and through a mucilage mass the mother cells are set free.
Each antherozoid is a very small and biflagellate spirally coiled structure that swims on the water current.
The upright paraphysis is a green and hair-like structure that secretes mucilage that protects the antheridia by conserving moisture.
The archegonia are born at the apex of the female branch and are surrounded by perichaetial leaves. The archegonium is flask-shaped having a short multicellular stalk.
The lower smaller part is called the venter encloses the egg cell and a ventral canal cell. Above it are about six neck canal cells. The wall of the neck is continuous with that wall of the neck is continuous with that of the venter.
In mature archegonium, the neck canal cells degenerate into mucilage. A sugary solution is secreted at the tip and this attracts the Sperm for fertilization.
When the sperm reaches here it fuses with the egg cell and forms a diploid (2n) Zygote by the process of fertilization.
All other antherozoids which enter the neck canal degenerate once fertilization has taken place. The Zygote is retained within the venter which provides it protection. After fertilization, the antheridial clusters wither.
A wall is secreted around the zygote and it is known as Oospore. This now undergoes repeated divisions which result in the formation of the sporophyte. This sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte.
Geographic distribution
- Africa
- Australia
- Caribbean
- Europe & Northern Asia (excluding China)
- Middle America
- North America
- Oceania
- South America
- Southern Asia
Species
There are more than 200 species of Funaria known today, of which 18 species are found in India.
- Funaria acicularis
- Funaria acidota
- Funaria acutifolia
- Funaria aequidens
- Funaria altiseta
- Funaria altissima
- Funaria americana
- Funaria ampliretis
- Funaria andicola
- Funaria anomala
- Funaria antarctica
- Funaria apiahyensis
- Funaria apiculatopilosa
- Funaria apophysata
- Funaria arctica
- Funaria arenicola
- Funaria aristatula
- Funaria balansae
- Funaria beccarii
- Funaria bergiana
- Funaria berteroana
- Funaria beyrichii
- Funaria bogosica
- Funaria bonplandii
- Funaria borbonica
- Funaria borneensis
- Funaria brassii
- Funaria buseana
- Funaria calvescens
- Funaria cameruniae
- Funaria campylopodioides
- Funaria capillaris
- Funaria capillipes
- Funaria cartilaginea
- Funaria chevalieri
- Funaria chilensis
- Funaria chiloensis
- Funaria clavaeformis
- Funaria clavata
- Funaria clavellata
- Funaria commixta
- Funaria commutata
- Funaria contorta
- Funaria convexa
- Funaria costesii Thér.
- Funaria curvi-apiculata
- Funaria curvipes
- Funaria curviseta
- Funaria decaryi
- Funaria delicatula
- Funaria deserticola
- Funaria discelioides
- Funaria diversinervis
- Funaria dozyana
- Funaria eberhardtii
- Funaria erectiuscula
- Funaria euryloma
- Funaria eurystoma
- Funaria excurrentinervis
- Funaria faucium
- Funaria flava
- Funaria flavicans
- Funaria flexiseta
- Funaria fontana
- Funaria fontanesii
- Funaria fritzei
- Funaria fuscescens
- Funaria glabripes
- Funaria gracilis
- Funaria grossidens
- Funaria hildebrandtii
- Funaria holstii
- Funaria hookeriana
- Funaria hosseusii
- Funaria husnotii
- Funaria hygrometrica Hedw.
- Funaria hygrometrica f. breviseta
- Funaria hygrometrica var. calvescens
- Funaria hygrometrica x physcomitrium acuminatum
- Funaria imerinensis
- Funaria incompleta
- Funaria incurvifolia
- Funaria inflata
- Funaria integra
- Funaria jamesonii
- Funaria japonica
- Funaria javanica
- Funaria kilimandscharica
- Funaria koelzei
- Funaria krausei
- Funaria laevis
- Funaria laxissima
- Funaria leibergii
- Funaria lepervanchei
- Funaria lignicola
- Funaria limbata
- Funaria lindigii
- Funaria linearidens
- Funaria longicollis
- Funaria longiseta
- Funaria ludoviciae
- Funaria luteo-limbata
- Funaria lutescens
- Funaria macrocarpa
- Funaria macrospora
- Funaria maireana
- Funaria marginatula
- Funaria mathwesii
- Funaria mauritiana
- Funaria mayottensis
- Funaria meeseacea
- Funaria megalostoma
- Funaria microcarpa
- Funaria micropyxis
- Funaria microstoma
- Funaria minuticaulis
- Funaria mittenii
- Funaria muhlenbergii
- Funaria muhlenbergii var. alpina
- Funaria nilotica
- Funaria noumeana
- Funaria nubica Müll. Hal.
- Funaria obtusa (Hedw.) Lindb.
- Funaria obtusa var. ahnfeltii
- Funaria obtusa var. notarisii
- Funaria obtusata
- Funaria obtuso
- Funaria oligophylla
- Funaria orizabensis
- Funaria orthocarpa
- Funaria ouropratensis
- Funaria papillosa
- Funaria paucifolia
- Funaria pellucida
- Funaria perlaxa
- Funaria perrottetii
- Funaria pilifera
- Funaria plagiothecia
- Funaria planifolia
- Funaria polaris Bryhn
- Funaria porteri Thér.
- Funaria producta
- Funaria puiggarii
- Funaria pulchella
- Funaria pulchra
- Funaria pulchricolor
- Funaria ramulosa
- Funaria renauldii
- Funaria rhizomatica
- Funaria rhizophylla
- Funaria rhomboidea
- Funaria riparia
- Funaria robustior
- Funaria rottleri
- Funaria saharae
- Funaria sartorii
- Funaria schinzii
- Funaria schnyderi
- Funaria serrata
- Funaria serricola
- Funaria sickenbergeri
- Funaria sinuato
- Funaria sipascoyae
- Funaria sovatensis
- Funaria spathulata
- Funaria spathulifolia
- Funaria subcuspidata
- Funaria suberecta
- Funaria subimmarginata
- Funaria subleptopoda
- Funaria submarginata
- Funaria subnuda
- Funaria subplanifolia
- Funaria subtilis
- Funaria subulata
- Funaria succuleata
- Funaria tenella
- Funaria trumpffii
- Funaria uleana
- Funaria undulata
- Funaria urceolata
- Funaria usambarica
- Funaria valdiviae
- Funaria varia
- Funaria verrucosa
- Funaria volkensii
- Funaria wallichii
- Funaria wichurae
- Funaria wijkii
Common Indian species of Funaria:
- Funaria hygrometrica
- Funaria fascicularis
- Funaria obtusa
Uses
- Funaria hygrometrica is nitrophilous (nitrogen-loving)
- It is used in nurseries and greenhouses to nourish plants
- Demonstrate the life cycle of a typical moss in educational institutions
- Used in container gardens
FAQs
Mycelium, plural mycelia, is the mass of branched, tubular filaments (hyphae) of fungi. The mycelium makes up a typical fungus’s thallus or undifferentiated body.